Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) face a multitude of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, including nausea, bloating, reduced bowel movements, and difficulties with defecation. These symptoms are common and may accumulate during the course of PD but are often under-recognized and challenging to manage. Objective testing can be burdensome to patients and does not correlate well with symptoms. Effective treatment options are limited. Evidence is often based on studies in the general population, and specific evidence in PD is scarce. Upper GI dysfunction may also interfere with the pharmacological treatment of PD motor symptoms, which poses significant management challenges. Several new less invasive assessment tools and novel treatment options have emerged in recent years. The current review provides an overview and a practical approach to recognizing and diagnosing common upper and lower GI problems in PD, e.g., dyspepsia, gastroparesis, small bowel dysfunction, chronic constipation, and defecatory dysfunction. Management aspects are discussed based on the latest evidence from the PD and general populations, with insights for future research pertaining to GI dysfunction in PD.
Citations
Citations to this article as recorded by
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L. leaves) improves brain and gut pathology in mouse models of brain-first and gut-first Parkinson's disease Hanbyeol Lee, Jin Hee Kim, Yujin Choi, Minji Lee, Hi-Joon Park, Myung Sook Oh The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry.2026; 147: 110116. CrossRef
A neuroprotective effect of newly isolated probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus SLAM_LAA02 in a rotenone-induced mouse model of Parkinson’s disease Yeonsoo Kim, Eunsol Seo, Anna Kang, Min-Geun Kang, Ki Beom Jang, Sangnam Oh, Younghoon Kim Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy.2026; 194: 118896. CrossRef
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum SG5 inhibits neuroinflammation in MPTP-induced PD mice through GLP-1/PGC-1α pathway Yueyan Qi, Yuxuan Dong, Jinhu Chen, Siyou Xie, Xin Ma, Xueping Yu, Yang Yu, Yanqin Wang Experimental Neurology.2025; 383: 115001. CrossRef
Gastrointestinal Dysfunction Bears on the Clinical‐Biological Profile of Parkinson's Disease Jacopo Bissacco, Roberta Bovenzi, Matteo Conti, Clara Simonetta, Davide Mascioli, Rocco Cerroni, Giulia Maria Sancesario, Piergiorgio Grillo, Mariangela Pierantozzi, Alessandro Stefani, Nicola Biagio Mercuri, Marta Camacho, Tommaso Schirinzi Movement Disorders Clinical Practice.2025; 12(4): 497. CrossRef
Leveraging animal models to understand non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease Thomas Wichmann, Alexandra Nelson, Eileen Ruth S. Torres, Per Svenningsson, Roberta Marongiu Neurobiology of Disease.2025; 208: 106848. CrossRef
The interrelationship between intestinal immune cells and enteric α-synuclein in the progression of Parkinson’s disease Yuan-Kai Cheng, Hao-Sen Chiang Neurological Sciences.2025; 46(7): 2965. CrossRef
Gastrointestinal Manifestations in Parkinson's Disease Using a Validated Arabic Version of Gastrointestinal Dysfunction Scale: A Multicenter Study Ali Soliman Shalash, Marwa Yassien Badr, Yara Salah, Shimaa Elgamal, Shaimaa Ahmed Elaidy, Eman Abdel‐Mageed Elhamrawy, Hayam Abdel‐Tawab, Eman Hamid, Ehab Ahmed El‐Seidy, Noha Lotfy Dawood Movement Disorders Clinical Practice.2025; 12(7): 947. CrossRef
Vital nutrition: enhancing health in advanced Parkinson’s disease with device-aided therapies Onanong Phokaewvarangkul, Ioanna Markaki, Harmen R. Moes, Igor Petrovic, Anette Schrag, Roongroj Bhidayasiri Journal of Neural Transmission.2025; 132(11): 1685. CrossRef
Association between cognitive and autonomic dysfunctions in patients with de novo Parkinson’s disease Byung-Euk Joo, Jihwan You, Rae On Kim, Kyum-Yil Kwon Scientific Reports.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Parkinson's Disease: An Emerging Link Shubham Teli, Mallappa Shalavadi, Chandrashekhar V.M., Lingaraj Anawal Current Signal Transduction Therapy.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Dynamic Changes in Oxidative Stress and Epigenetic Modifications in the Ventral Mesencephalon and Striatum of MPTP-Treated Mice: Implications for Parkinson's Disease Pathogenesis Pablo Gallo-Soljancic, Maria Egle De Stefano, Ana-Maria Gonzalez-Cuello, Emiliano Fernandez-Villalba, Lode Godderis, Maria Trinidad Herrero Neurotoxicity Research.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Far from being the end of the road: taking a closer look at neuropalliative care in Parkinson’s disease Manon Auffret, Fran Borovecki, Beatrice Heim, Wolfgang H. Jost, Per Odin, Fabrizio Stocchi, Maja Trost, Marc Vérin Journal of Neural Transmission.2025; 132(11): 1727. CrossRef
Naringenin targets and inhibits Monoamine Oxidase A/B to bidirectionally regulate intestinal motility. Qi Li, Yi Chen, Yige Zhang, Canwei Xu, Ting Tang, Yunzhi Qian, Ong Shun seng, Yujuan Wang, Ling Fang, Tianshu Xu Chemico-Biological Interactions.2025; 421: 111742. CrossRef
A Review of the Recent Advances in the Pharmacological Management of Parkinson’s Disease Allan Li, Alex Cha, Maria Huang, Sanya Dhami, Sudhakar Pemminati Cureus.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials Muhammad Hassan Waseem, Zain ul Abideen, Areeba Shoaib, Nohela Rehman, Muhammad Osama, Barka Sajid, Rowaid Ahmad, Zara Fahim, Muhammad Wajih Ansari, Sania Aimen, Ameer Haider Cheema, Pawan Kumar Thada Journal of Central Nervous System Disease.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Management of Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Patients with Movement Disorders: Focusing on Parkinson's Disease Jungyeun Lee, Kyung Min Kim, Byung-Su Kim, Seung Woo Kim, Hee-Jin Kim, Kyoungwon Baik, Jin Myoung Seok, Jun-Sang Sunwoo, In-Uk Song, Ho Geol Woo, Eek-Sung Lee, Jin-Man Jung, Kyomin Choi, Yun Ho Choi, Seong-Beom Koh, Kwang Ik Yang Journal of the Korean Neurological Association.2025; 43(4): 222. CrossRef
Associations between gut microbiota characteristics and non‐motor symptoms following pharmacological and surgical treatments in Parkinson's disease patients Agnieszka Gorecka‐Mazur, Anna Krygowska‐Wajs, Agata Furgala, Jiaqi Li, Benjamin Misselwitz, Wojciech Pietraszko, Borys Kwinta, Bahtiyar Yilmaz Neurogastroenterology & Motility.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Clinical diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of neurodyspepsia syndrome using intelligent medicine Jingyu Zhu, Wei Meng, Liang Liu, Peixin Hu, Yuling Liang, Wenwen Zhu, Xiaoyan Zhu Open Life Sciences.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease: Insights from cross-cohort prognostic analysis using machine learning Rebecca Ting Jiin Loo, Olena Tsurkalenko, Jochen Klucken, Graziella Mangone, Fouad Khoury, Marie Vidailhet, Jean-Christophe Corvol, Rejko Krüger, Enrico Glaab, Geeta Acharya, Gloria Aguayo, Myriam Alexandre, Muhammad Ali, Wim Ammerlann, Giuseppe Arena, Mi Parkinsonism & Related Disorders.2024; 126: 107054. CrossRef
Acupuncture for constipation in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Zhao Li, Qun Niu, Kai Yang, Keni Zhao, Shao Yin, Fengya Zhu Medicine.2024; 103(29): e38937. CrossRef
Alpha Synuclein Toxicity and Non-Motor Parkinson’s Gabriella M. Mazzotta, Carmela Conte Cells.2024; 13(15): 1265. CrossRef
Novel strategies in Parkinson’s disease treatment: a review Charles L. Mitchell, Dmitry Kurouski Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Advice to People with Parkinson’s in My Clinic: Probiotics and Prebiotics Jia Wei Hor, Tzi Shin Toh, Shen-Yang Lim, Ai Huey Tan Journal of Parkinson’s Disease.2024; 14(7): 1507. CrossRef
Unmasking bowel obstruction in a Parkinson’s patient: the influence of cognitive bias in frailty medicine Harvey Stevenson, Daniele Ramsay, Waseem Jerjes Oxford Medical Case Reports.2024;[Epub] CrossRef