Journal of Movement Disorders

Review Article

Functional Movement Disorders: Updates and Clinical Overview: Jung E Park; J Mov Disord. 2024;17(3):251-261. Published online July 1, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.24126

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Abstract PDF: Functional movement disorder (FMD) is a type of functional neurological disorder that is common but often difficult to diagnose or manage. FMD can present as various phenotypes, including tremor, dystonia, myoclonus, gait disorders, and parkinsonism. Conducting a clinical examination appropriate for assessing a patient with suspected FMD is important, and various diagnostic testing maneuvers may also be helpful. Treatment involving a multidisciplinary team, either outpatient or inpatient, has been found to be most effective. Examples of such treatment protocols are also discussed in this review. While recognition and understanding of the disorder has improved over the past few decades, as well as the development of treatments, it is not uncommon for patients and physicians to continue to experience various difficulties when dealing with this disorder. In this review, I provide a practical overview of FMD and discuss how the clinical encounter itself can play a role in patients’ acceptance of the diagnosis. Recent neuroimaging studies that aid in understanding the pathophysiology are also discussed.

Brief communication

COVID-19 Vaccine-Related Movement Disorders: A Systematic Review: Grace Elysse D. Angeles, Lowrence Precious C. Dichoso, Roland Dominic G. Jamora; J Mov Disord. 2024;17(3):322-327. Published online March 19, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.24001

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Objective
Since the release of vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), there have been reports of vaccine-related neurologic complications. This study aimed to perform a descriptive systematic review of movement disorders associated with COVID-19 vaccines.
Methods
We described the demographics, clinical presentation, management, outcomes, and proposed pathomechanism of the patients. A systematic review was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A standardized tool was used to assess the quality of the cases.
Results
We identified 8 articles that met our inclusion criteria; these articles included 10 patients who developed movement disorders after vaccination. The majority were males (n = 8), with a median age of 64.5 years. The most common movement disorder was hemichorea. The rest presented with generalized chorea with myoclonus, cervical dystonia, and akathisia. Most patients respond to immunotherapy. The standardized tool used showed that most studies had a low risk of bias.
Conclusion
The reported incidence of vaccine-related movement disorders was low based on available published cases.

Review Articles

Nine Hereditary Movement Disorders First Described in Asia: Their History and Evolution: Priya Jagota, Yoshikazu Ugawa, Zakiyah Aldaajani, Norlinah Mohamed Ibrahim, Hiroyuki Ishiura, Yoshiko Nomura, Shoji Tsuji, Cid Diesta, Nobutaka Hattori, Osamu Onodera, Saeed Bohlega, Amir Al-Din, Shen-Yang Lim, Jee-Young Lee, Beomseok Jeon, Pramod Kumar Pal, Huifang Shang, Shinsuke Fujioka, Prashanth Lingappa Kukkle, Onanong Phokaewvarangkul, Chin-Hsien Lin, Cholpon Shambetova, Roongroj Bhidayasiri; J Mov Disord. 2023;16(3):231-247. Published online June 13, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.23065

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material

Clinical case studies and reporting are important to the discovery of new disorders and the advancement of medical sciences. Both clinicians and basic scientists play equally important roles leading to treatment discoveries for both cures and symptoms. In the field of movement disorders, exceptional observation of patients from clinicians is imperative, not just for phenomenology but also for the variable occurrences of these disorders, along with other signs and symptoms, throughout the day and the disease course. The Movement Disorders in Asia Task Force (TF) was formed to help enhance and promote collaboration and research on movement disorders within the region. As a start, the TF has reviewed the original studies of the movement disorders that were preliminarily described in the region. These include nine disorders that were first described in Asia: Segawa disease, PARK-Parkin, X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism, dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, Woodhouse-Sakati syndrome, benign adult familial myoclonic epilepsy, Kufor-Rakeb disease, tremulous dystonia associated with mutation of the calmodulin-binding transcription activator 2 gene, and paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. We hope that the information provided will honor the original researchers and help us learn and understand how earlier neurologists and basic scientists together discovered new disorders and made advances in the field, which impact us all to this day.

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Genetic heterogeneity of early onset Parkinson disease: The dilemma of clinico-genetic correlation
Roopa Rajan, Vikram V. Holla, Nitish Kamble, Ravi Yadav, Pramod Kumar Pal
Parkinsonism & Related Disorders.2024; : 107146. CrossRef

Historical and More Common Nongenetic Movement Disorders From Asia: Norlinah Mohamed Ibrahim, Priya Jagota, Pramod Kumar Pal, Roongroj Bhidayasiri, Shen-Yang Lim, Yoshikazu Ugawa, Zakiyah Aldaajani, Beomseok Jeon, Shinsuke Fujioka, Jee-Young Lee, Prashanth Lingappa Kukkle, Huifang Shang, Onanong Phokaewvarangkul, Cid Diesta, Cholpon Shambetova, Chin-Hsien Lin; J Mov Disord. 2023;16(3):248-260. Published online June 9, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.22224

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Nongenetic movement disorders are common throughout the world. The movement disorders encountered may vary depending on the prevalence of certain disorders across various geographical regions. In this paper, we review historical and more common nongenetic movement disorders in Asia. The underlying causes of these movement disorders are diverse and include, among others, nutritional deficiencies, toxic and metabolic causes, and cultural Latah syndrome, contributed by geographical, economic, and cultural differences across Asia. The industrial revolution in Japan and Korea has led to diseases related to environmental toxin poisoning, such as Minamata disease and β-fluoroethyl acetate-associated cerebellar degeneration, respectively, while religious dietary restriction in the Indian subcontinent has led to infantile tremor syndrome related to vitamin B12 deficiency. In this review, we identify the salient features and key contributing factors in the development of these disorders.

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Diabetic striatopathy and other acute onset de novo movement disorders in hyperglycemia
Subhankar Chatterjee, Ritwik Ghosh, Payel Biswas, Shambaditya Das, Samya Sengupta, Souvik Dubey, Biman Kanti Ray, Alak Pandit, Julián Benito-León, Rana Bhattacharjee
Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews.2024; 18(3): 102997. CrossRef
Tremors in Infantile Tremor Syndrome Mimicking Epilepsia Partialis Continua
Tonyot Gailson, Pradeep Kumar Gunasekaran, Arushi Gahlot Saini, Chaithanya Reddy
Journal of Movement Disorders.2024; 17(3): 351. CrossRef

Adult-Onset Genetic Leukoencephalopathies With Movement Disorders: Mu-Hui Fu, Yung-Yee Chang; J Mov Disord. 2023;16(2):115-132. Published online March 7, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.22127

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Abstract PDF: Genetic leukoencephalopathies (GLEs) are a group of white matter abnormalities with heterogeneous radiological and phenotypic features. Although these conditions have mostly been described in children, adult-onset cases are increasingly recognized owing to the widespread use of neuroimaging and advances in molecular genetic testing. The disease course is often progressive with a varied spectrum of presentations, trapping neurologists in the dilemma of differential diagnosis. Movement disorders are among the most common symptoms, and their diversity makes diagnosis challenging. In this review, we focus on adult-onset GLEs with movement disorders and offer a step-by-step diagnostic approach by clarifying the phenomenology of movement, advising investigations for acquired causes, describing the clinical and radiological clues to each disease, emphasizing the limitations of advanced molecular testing, and discussing the future application of artificial intelligence. We provide a list summarizing the leukoencephalopathies associated with different categories of movement disorders. In addition to guiding clinicians on how to narrow the list of differential diagnoses with the tools currently available, another aim of this review is to emphasize the inevitable trend toward applying advanced technology in diagnosing these difficult diseases.

Treatable Ataxias: How to Find the Needle in the Haystack?: Albert Stezin, Pramod Kumar Pal; J Mov Disord. 2022;15(3):206-226. Published online September 7, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.22069

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Abstract PDF

Treatable ataxias are a group of ataxic disorders with specific treatments. These disorders include genetic and metabolic disorders, immune-mediated ataxic disorders, and ataxic disorders associated with infectious and parainfectious etiology, vascular causes, toxins and chemicals, and endocrinopathies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of different treatable ataxias. The major metabolic and genetic treatable ataxic disorders include ataxia with vitamin E deficiency, abetalipoproteinemia, cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, Niemann-Pick disease type C, autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxia due to coenzyme Q10 deficiency, glucose transporter type 1 deficiency, and episodic ataxia type 2. The treatment of these disorders includes the replacement of deficient cofactors and vitamins, dietary modifications, and other specific treatments. Treatable ataxias with immune-mediated etiologies include gluten ataxia, anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody-associated ataxia, steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroiditis, Miller-Fisher syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Although dietary modification with a gluten-free diet is adequate in gluten ataxia, other autoimmune ataxias are managed by short-course steroids, plasma exchange, or immunomodulation. For autoimmune ataxias secondary to malignancy, treatment of tumor can reduce ataxic symptoms. Chronic alcohol consumption, antiepileptics, anticancer drugs, exposure to insecticides, heavy metals, and recreational drugs are potentially avoidable and treatable causes of ataxia. Infective and parainfectious causes of cerebellar ataxias include acute cerebellitis, postinfectious ataxia, Whipple’s disease, meningoencephalitis, and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. These disorders are treated with steroids and antibiotics. Recognizing treatable disorders is of paramount importance when dealing with ataxias given that early treatment can prevent permanent neurological sequelae.

Citations

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Genetic Testing of Movements Disorders: A Review of Clinical Utility
Dennis Yeow, Laura I. Rudaks, Sue-Faye Siow, Ryan L. Davis, Kishore R. Kumar
Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Genetically Proven Ataxia With Vitamin E Deficiency With Predominant Cervicobrachial Dystonic Presentation: A Case Report From India
Vikram V. Holla, Sandeep Gurram, Sneha D. Kamath, Gautham Arunachal, Nitish Kamble, Ravi Yadav, Pramod Kumar Pal
Journal of Movement Disorders.2024; 17(2): 220. CrossRef
Rehabilitation in Ataxia
Anupam Gupta, Navin B. Prakash, Hafis Rahman
Indian Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation.2023; 33(1): 21. CrossRef

Diagnosis and Clinical Features in Autoimmune-Mediated Movement Disorders: Pei-Chen Hsieh, Yih-Ru Wu; J Mov Disord. 2022;15(2):95-105. Published online May 26, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.21077

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material

Movement disorders are common manifestations in autoimmune-mediated encephalitis. This group of diseases is suspected to be triggered by infection or neoplasm. Certain phenotypes correlate with specific autoantibody-related neurological disorders, such as orofacial-lingual dyskinesia with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis and faciobrachial dystonic seizures with leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 encephalitis. Early diagnosis and treatment, especially for autoantibodies targeting neuronal surface antigens, can improve prognosis. In contrast, the presence of autoantibodies against intracellular neuronal agents warrants screening for underlying malignancy. However, early clinical diagnosis is challenging because these diseases can be misdiagnosed. In this article, we review the distinctive clinical phenotypes, magnetic resonance imaging findings, and current treatment options for autoimmune-mediated encephalitis.

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A case of corticobasal syndrome possibly associated with anti-Yo antibodies
Efthalia Angelopoulou, Vasilios C. Constantinides, Evangelos Koumasopoulos, Evangelia Stanitsa, Efstratios-Stylianos Pyrgelis, Andreas Kyrozis, Elisabeth Kapaki, Leonidas Stefanis, Sokratis G. Papageorgiou
Current Medical Research and Opinion.2024; : 1. CrossRef

Gene Therapy for Huntington’s Disease: The Final Strategy for a Cure?: Seulgi Byun, Mijung Lee, Manho Kim; J Mov Disord. 2022;15(1):15-20. Published online November 17, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.21006

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Abstract PDF

Huntington’s disease (HD) has become a target of the first clinical trials for gene therapy among movement disorders with a genetic origin. More than 100 clinical trials regarding HD have been tried, but all failed, although there were some improvements limited to symptomatic support. Compared to other neurogenetic disorders, HD is known to have a single genetic target. Thus, this is an advantage and its cure is more feasible than any other movement disorder with heterogeneous genetic causes. In this review paper, the authors attempt to cover the characteristics of HD itself while providing an overview of the gene transfer methods currently being researched, and will introduce an experimental trial with a preclinical model of HD followed by an update on the ongoing clinical trials for patients with HD.

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Brief communication

Clinical and Imaging Profile of Patients with Joubert Syndrome: Bharath Kumar Surisetti, Vikram Venkappayya Holla, Shweta Prasad, Koti Neeraja, Nitish Kamble, Ravi Yadav, Pramod Kumar Pal; J Mov Disord. 2021;14(3):231-235. Published online September 16, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.21066

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material

Objective
Joubert syndrome (JS) is a rare syndrome characterized by ataxia and the molar tooth sign (MTS) on imaging. The present study aims to explore the clinical and radiological features in a cohort of patients with JS.
Methods
This was a retrospective chart review of patients with JS evaluated by movement disorder specialists.
Results
Nine patients were included in the study. All patients had facial dysmorphism and ocular abnormalities, and 4 patients had dystonia. Ocular tilt reaction and alternate skew deviation (66%) were the most common ocular abnormalities. Horizontally aligned superior cerebellar peduncles were observed in all four patients with diffusion tensor imaging, with a lack of decussation in three. Exome sequencing performed in four patients revealed novel variants in the MKS1, CPLANE1, and PIBF1 genes.
Conclusion
Facial dysmorphism, ocular abnormalities and classical imaging findings were observed in all patients with JS. Apart from ataxia, dystonia and myoclonus are other movement disorders observed in JS.

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Atatürk Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Cerrahi Tıp Bilimleri Dergisi.2024; 3(1): 15. CrossRef
Joubert Syndrome Presenting With Levodopa-Responsive Parkinsonism
Jin Hwangbo, Ki-Seok Park, Hyun Sung Kim, Jae-Hwan Choi, Jae-Hyeok Lee
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Progressive Dysphagia in Joubert Syndrome: A Report of a Rare Case
Courteney Castellano, Jomaries O Gomez Rosado, Alexandra Witt, Rebecca Simon, Dyadin Esharif
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Clinical and genetic characteristics of 36 children with Joubert syndrome
Yan Dong, Ke Zhang, He Yao, Tianming Jia, Jun Wang, Dengna Zhu, Falin Xu, Meiying Cheng, Shichao Zhao, Xiaoyi Shi
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Reza Shervin Badv, Mojdeh Mahdiannasser, Maryam Rasoulinezhad, Laleh Habibi, Ali Rashidi-Nezhad
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Original Articles

Patient Knowledge, Attitude and Perceptions towards Botulinum Toxin Treatment for Movement Disorders in India: Thavasimuthu Nisha Mol, Nitish Kamble, Vikram V. Holla, Rohan Mahale, Pramod Kumar Pal, Ravi Yadav; J Mov Disord. 2021;14(2):126-132. Published online April 26, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.20094

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Objective
There is limited literature on the knowledge, attitude, and perceptions (KAP) of botulinum toxin (BoNT) treatment among patients and caregivers. The objective of this study was to assess the KAP in patients undergoing BoNT treatment for movement disorders.
Methods
One hundred patients with movement disorders from National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences Hospital in Bengaluru, South India, were recruited. The patients underwent demographic, clinical, and Patient Knowledge Questionnaire on Botulinum Toxin Use in Movement Disorders (PKQ-BMD)-based evaluations.
Results
The mean age of patients at the time of presentation was 47.97 ± 14.19 years (range, 12–79). Of all the patients, 26 (28%) patients were anxious, and 86% of these patients were reassured after appropriate counseling. There were 83 (89%) patients who found BoNT to be a costlier option. Education and previous Internet searches influenced positive performance in the “knowledge” domain and overall PKQ-BMD scores. The “number of injections” was also positively correlated with KAP performance.
Conclusion
This study showed that knowledge and perceptions about BoNT treatment need to be further improved. Wider availability of the Internet has provided a positive impact on patients’ and carers’ KAP. Internet-based information, higher educational qualifications of the patients, and a higher number of BoNT injection sessions are the most important predictors of satisfactory KAP related to BoNT injection treatment in patients with movement disorders.

Telemedicine in an Academic Movement Disorders Center during COVID-19: Christine Doss Esper, Laura Scorr, Sosi Papazian, Daniel Bartholomew, Gregory Jacob Esper, Stewart Alan Factor; J Mov Disord. 2021;14(2):119-125. Published online March 18, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.20099

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Abstract PDF

Objective
Telemedicine has rapidly gained momentum in movement disorder neurology during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic to preserve clinical care while mitigating the risks of in-person visits. We present data from the rapid implementation of virtual visits in a large, academic, movement disorder practice during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods
We describe the strategic shift to virtual visits and retrospectively examine elements that impacted the ability to switch to telemedicine visits using historical prepandemic in-person data as a comparator, including demographics, distance driven, and diagnosis distribution, with an additional focus on patients with deep brain stimulators.
Results
A total of 686 telemedicine visits were performed over a five-week period (60% of those previously scheduled for in-office visits). The average age of participants was 65 years, 45% were female, and 73% were Caucasian. Men were more likely to make the transition (p = 0.02). Telemedicine patients lived farther from the clinic than those seen in person (66.47 km vs. 42.16 km, p < 0.001), age was not associated with making the switch, and patient satisfaction did not change. There was a significant shift in the distribution of movement disorder diagnoses seen by telemedicine compared to prepandemic in-person visits (p < 0.001). Patients with deep brain stimulators were more likely to use telemedicine (11.5% vs. 7%, p < 0.001).
Conclusion
Telemedicine is feasible, viable and relevant in the care of movement disorder patients, although health care disparities appear evident for women and minorities. Patients with deep brain stimulators preferred telemedicine in our study. Further study is warranted to explore these findings.

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Christine D. Esper, Blanca Y. Valdovinos, Ruth B. Schneider, Elke Kalbe, Bastiaan R. Bloem, Lorraine V. Kalia, Alice Nieuwboer
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Clinical Characteristics of Involuntary Movement in Hospitalized Patients: Kyum-Yil Kwon, Hye Mi Lee, Seon-Min Lee, Seong-Beom Koh; J Mov Disord. 2019;12(1):31-36. Published online December 20, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.18040

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Abstract PDF

Objective
Neurological symptoms in hospitalized patients are not rare, and neurological consultation for movement disorders is especially important in evaluating or managing those with various movement disorders. Therefore, we investigated a clinical pattern of in-hospital consultations for various movement disorders in a tertiary care university hospital.
Methods
Over two years, a total of 202 patients (70.7 ± 11.8 years of age) presenting with movement disorders referred to movement disorder specialists were investigated.
Results
The main symptoms referred by nonneurologists were tremor (56.9%), parkinsonism (16.8%), and gait disturbance (8.9%). The most frequent diagnostic category was toxic/metabolic-caused movement disorder (T/MCMD) (35%) with regard to medications, followed by Parkinson’s disease (PD) (16%). Regarding the mode of onset, T/MCMD was the leading cause for acute (68%) and subacute onset (46%), while PD was the leading disorder (31%) for chronic onset.
Conclusion
The current study showed a characteristic pattern of inpatients presenting with movement disorders. Furthermore, our findings highlighted the clinical significance of drug use or metabolic problems for treating this patient population.

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Pattern and frequency of involuntary movements: hospital-based study
H. N. El Tallawy, A. S. Shalash, M. A. Abdelhamed, R. E. Elsabrout
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Oromandibular Dystonia: Demographics and Clinical Data from 240 Patients: Linda Slaim, Myriam Cohen, Patrick Klap, Marie Vidailhet, Alain Perrin, Daniel Brasnu, Denis Ayache, Marie Mailly; J Mov Disord. 2018;11(2):78-81. Published online May 30, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.17065

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Abstract PDF

Objective
To report demographic data from a large cohort of patients with oromandibular dystonia (OMD).
Methods
This is a retrospective review of patients with OMD referred to our institution between 1989 and 2015. Demographic (age of onset, gender, and familial history of dystonia) and clinical (type of OMD, associated dystonia, and etiology of dystonia) data were collected from a cohort of 240 individuals.
Results
The mean age of onset of OMD was 51.6 years old, with a female predominance (2:1). A family history of dystonia was found in 6 patients (2.5%). One hundred and forty-nine patients (62.1%) had the jaw-opening type of OMD, 48 patients (20.0%) had the jaw-closing type, and 43 patients (17.9%) had a mixed form of OMD. Lingual dystonia was also present in 64 (26.7%) of these patients. Eighty-two patients (34.2%) had a focal dystonia, 131 patients (54.6%) had a segmental dystonia, and 27 patients (11.3%) had a generalized dystonia. One hundred and seventy-one patients (71.3%) had idiopathic OMD.
Conclusion
OMD is a chronic and disabling focal dystonia. Our study found a prevalence of female patients, an onset in middle age and a predominantly idiopathic etiology. Unlike other studies, jaw-opening was found to be the most frequent clinical type of OMD.

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Case Report

Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia as the Presenting and Only Manifestation of Multiple Sclerosis after Eighteen Months of Follow-Up: Marius Baguma, Michel Ossemann; J Mov Disord. 2017;10(2):96-98. Published online March 24, 2017; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.16055

9,407 View
181 Download
7 Web of Science
6 Crossref

Abstract PDF

Other than tremor, movement disorders are uncommon in multiple sclerosis. Among these uncommon clinical manifestations, paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia is the most frequently reported. It is characterized by episodic attacks of involuntary movements that are induced by repetitive or sudden movements, startling noise or hyperventilation. The diagnosis is essentially clinical and based on a good observation of the attacks. It is very easy to misdiagnose it. We describe the case of a young female patient who presented paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia as the first and only clinical manifestation of multiple sclerosis, with no recurrence of attacks nor any other neurologic symptom after eighteen months of follow-up.

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Original Article

Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Functional (Psychogenic) Movement Disorders: Vibhash D. Sharma, Randi Jones, Stewart A. Factor; J Mov Disord. 2017;10(1):40-44. Published online December 27, 2016; DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.16038

12,940 View
193 Download
13 Web of Science
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Abstract PDF

Objective
As the literature for the treatment of functional (psychogenic) movement disorders (FMD) is sparse, we assessed clinical outcomes in patients with FMD who underwent treatment with psychodynamic psychotherapy (PDP).
Methods
A retrospective analysis of the data of patients with FMD who were referred for PDP from 2008−2014 at Emory University Medical Center was performed.
Results
Thirty patients were included, mean age at presentation was 50 years (SD 13.9) and majority were female (27/30). Most common movement disorder was involuntary shaking/jerky movements (50%) and tremor (43%). Mean duration of symptoms was 3.2 years and mean number of PDP visits was 4.9. PDP lead to good outcomes in 10, modest in 8, and poor in 9. Three patients lost to follow up. Mean duration of symptoms between two groups (good vs. poor) was not statistically significant (p = 0.11), mean number of PDP visits showed a trend towards significance (p = 0.053). In all cases of good outcomes precipitants of the movement disorder were identified and a majority (60%) was receptive of the diagnosis and had good insight.
Conclusion
PDP lead to improvement in 60% of the patients which is encouraging as the treatment is challenging. This study supports heterogeneous causes of FMD including varied roles of past/recent events and demonstrates importance of psychological approaches such as PDP. Treatment with PDP should be considered in some patients with FMD but predicting who will respond remains a challenge. Further long term prospective studies with large sample size and placebo control are needed.

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